Impacts of Volcanic Eruptions on Urban Communities

Impacts of Vol stoolic Eruptions on Urban CommunitiesVolcanoes, milieu and People Degree AssessmentComp ar and contrast the impacts of volcanic boots on urban communities in pre industrial and topographic point industrial evolution societies. familiarityablenessThe industrial diversity refers to a consequence in history that well-nigh surpassred surrounded by 1760 and 1840, which saw the transition from old to newer manufacturing processes. It is regarded as a major turning percentage point in history, influencing most aspects of daily purport, even today. The whirling saw a change from traditional hand production to the rehearse of more modern tools, machines and new technologies. Technology became more advanced and its intention became more significant. Gaillard (2007) suggests that pre industrial transition societies, like those discussed in this essay had a more intimate relationship with the natural environment, which plays a key procedure when assessing the imp acts of a volcanic strike.In this essay I will foremost compargon the impacts of a pre and post industrial revolution irruption of mountain Vesuvius. Their impacts on urban communities will then be discussed in comparing with the more recent extravasations of Eld expend in Iceland and the Soufriere Hills volcano in Montserrat. For the purposes of this essay urban communities will be defined as a substantial collection of buildings or people in whiz area. To assess the impacts of a volcanic flack on an urban community, the spirit of the community will use up to be considered. Impacts of the eruption will vary between communities depending on a number of factors including nextness to the eruption, nucleotide, transport links, predication and preparation and the overall study of the community (Marzocchi et al., 2004). Different types of volcanic events will also produce assorted types of impale (pyroc finishic flows, tephra fall bulge out, and gas emissions) which also need be considered in the estimation of a volcanic eruption.Pre Industrial vicissitudeVesuvius, AD79Mount Vesuvius is located in a densely populated area, with thousands of people living on its flanks and in the immediate vicinity of the volcano (Marzocchi et al., 2004). In the past Vesuvius has produced several bragging(a) eruptions, including the most well known eruption which destroyed the townshipspeople of Pompeii in AD79. This was a VEI5, Plinian eruption that consisted of two stages. Usually Plinian eruptions are classified by three stages an initial eruption phase with a sustained eruptive editorial of gas and pyroclastic material a second phase in which the eruption column wrinkles and generates pyroclastic flows which could reach speeds of up to 100km/h and finally the times of dense, rapid mudflows generated by water on steep slopes (Barberi Zuccaro, 2006). In the suit of clothes of the Vesuvius eruption in AD79 only stage one and two occurred. in that respect were no mudflows, only pyroclastic flows. (Lirer et al., 1973).The eruption produced a 32km high eruption column and extensive tephra all out south of the eruption resulting in gathering of tephra 2.8m thick over Pompeii and other regions (Sigurdsson et al., 1982). Sigurdsson et al (1982) presents evidence to support the collapse of roofs under the weight of pumice that fell and consequently the end of infrastructure throughout the town. The tephra fall would also have made it very backbreaking for people to be outdoors around that time. The town would have been in total darkness and they would have had to wade through several metres of tephra on the ground. Despite this, this first stage of eruption was non lethal. It alarmed people except gave the majority of the existence time to flee. 2000 deaths were accounted for out of the 20,000 people living in Pompeii and neighbouring towns (Luke, 2013).The second stage of the eruption consisted of six pyroclastic flows, during which most death and destruction to property occurred. Figure 1 details that between them, six pyroclastic flows travelled from the volcano, covering the towns of Herculaneum, Oplontis and Pompeii. The flows travelled 32km west across the Bay of Naples to Misenum and south eastern of Stabiae (Siggurdsson et al., 1982).Figure 1. typify of Vesuvius and surrounding towns showing pyroclastic flow deposits and the extent of the pyroclastic flows during the AD79 eruption (Source Siggurdsson et al., 1982).The AD79 eruption of Vesuvius is an display case of how communities with the most insecurity are the most en jeopardyed to hazards and have the capability of turning them from hazard to disaster (Gaillard, 2007). Through studies carried out on the settlement of Palma Campania a commune in Naples, Grattan (2006) showed that although most of the population was killed by tephra fall and pyroclastic flows at that place was reluctance to permanently build a settlement on the volcano plains, sug gesting that instead of mitigating the effects of a volcanic eruption the communities instead chose to deal with them. They derived a method of coping and instruction to live with the sudden environmental change.Compare this with the smaller VEI3 eruption of Vesuvius in 1944 and the impacts are very different. Although the eruption was smaller, there was more of an impact on nearby towns because of the nature of the community (Barnes, 2011). Important buildings such as schools and hospitals were built very closure to fracture zones on the volcano flanks where open vents had previously been recorded. Under these conditions, living and having important amenities in such close proximity, events smaller than the 1944 eruption could be catastrophic from an economical and social point of view (Marzocchi et al., 2004).From a comparison of the two Vesuvius eruptions it is homely that the hazards each volcanic eruption produced were similar, however the way the communities chose to deal with them and therefore the impacts of each eruption are different for pre and post industrial communities. With a simpler way of life, post industrial revolution communities towns were able to easily change aspects of their daily life and adapt to living with a volcano. In a way, modern engine room could be considered a downfall. If a super eruption were to happen it would take for stress to all aspects of modern day life. Air travel would be practically unrealistic because of airborne tephra, climate change would be solemn and affect crop production across the globe, telecommunications would be restricted and great areas would be affected by tephra fall and toxic gases (Grattan, 2006). Although that is a pommel case scenario it highlights how post industrial revolution or modern communities may non always be better off.Post Industrial RevolutionAccording to Marzocchi et al (2004) the hazards a volcanic eruption presents are stiff to quantify because of the complexity of the eruptive processes and the unreliability of past data. However, it is thought that the onward motion of communities means that a volcanic eruption poses a greater flagellum as there is more at hazard. The eruption of Eldfell, a volcanic cone on the Icelandic island of Heimaey does however show how technologies of the industrial revolution could work towards reducing the hazards a volcanic eruption presents.Eldfell, 1973The eruption of Eldfell began, without all warning, on the 23rd of January 1973, as a fissure crossing the island (Morgan, 2000). It caused a major crisis for the island, almost ca utilize permanent evacuation. Volcanic ash fell on most of the island and more than 400 homes were destroyed as roofs were not constructed to deal with the weight from ashfall. Tractors were used to remove ash from the roofs and save about of the buildings (Morgan, 2000). Figure 2 shows the town of Vestmannaeyjar during and after the eruption and gives an idea of the scurf of dama ged caused by the eruption. It was most at risk because of its close lieu to the volcanic fissure. It was be by tephra fall and lava flows (Thorarinsson et al., 1973). The lava flows that threatened the towns also threatened the harbour, the islands main source of income. The response to the lava flows was to spray them with sea water, which cooled them down and stop further advance, saving the harbour (Morgan, 2000).Figure 2. Houses nearest the fissure were destoryed by volcanic bombs thrown from the volcano during thr eruption (Left). The right image shows the town of Vestmannaeyjar after lava had advanced onto it. Cooling hoses used to cool the lava are highlighted in red. (Source Morgan, 2000)Although the scale of the Eldfell eruption was relatively small, the town of Vestmannaeyjar was put at risk because of its location of the fissure. The fissure opened up at the edge of the town with the lava destroying 200 buildings, and more being damaged by tephra fall (Dugmore Vsteins son, 2012). Despite this the death toll for the Eldfell eruption was low as there were resources and space to evacuate those in immediate danger. Boats transported people off the island to Reyjavic where schools and other larger buildings acted as receptions for the evacuees. Compare this with the Pompeii eruption where the resources were unavailable and lack of knowledge made evacuating people not an option. Even if the resources were available, it would have been physically impossible to relocate such a large population.In Iceland, volcanism is considered to be one of the principal causes for lack of development (Dugmore Vsteinsson, 2012). In most cases, the cast out impacts of a volcanic eruption have been kept to a token(prenominal) both by environmental and cultural factors. There is little to hike people to settle in immediate volcanic zones high elevations are unfavourable in terms of climate and the steep slopes of the volcano flanks are difficult to build on. Social sys tems within Iceland are well meet to coping with volcanic hazards so when an event does occur it will not have such a great impact as if it were to occur in Britain for example (Dugmore Vsteinsson, 2012).Soufriere Hills, 1995Montserrat is a small island in the Caribbean that consists of 4 volcanic centres Silver hill, Centre hills, Soufriere hills and South Soufriere hills. The map in look 3 shows the location of the 4 volcanic centres on the island (Wadge Isaacs, 1988).Figure 3. Map of Montserrat showing the 4 volcanic domes. Chances Peak, responsible for the 1995 eruption is highlighted in red. (Source Wadge Isaascs 1988)Chances poll was responsible for the eruptions from 1995 onwards (Figure 3). The eruption began in 1995 after a period of seismic action at law and small warning signs of an eruption (Robertson et al., 2000). The most pictorial eruptions occurred in 1997 and consisted of pyroclastic flows, lahars and tephra fall. The advancement of tephra and pyroclastic f lows and the settlements around the volcano that were destroyed throughout the eruption is shown in Figure 4.Figure 4. Chances Peak and the location of nearby settlements. Shows the progression of the eruption during 1997 to 1998 and depicts the settlements that were destroyed by pyroclastic flows, lahars and tephra fall. (Source BBC Bitesize)Through recognition of distinctive patterns in seismic activity and monitoring signals, short term forecasts of volcanic activity were able to be made so those most in danger could be evacuated at the most appropriate time (Robertson et al., 2000). The islanders in close proximity to the volcano were evacuated to the north of the island, to neighbouring countries and to the UK as Montserrat is a British strung-out territory (Young et al., 1998). In total, only 19 people who chose to stay empennage were killed by the eruption. The Soufriere Hills volcano provided an opportunity for modern technology and volcanological thinking to be fully uti lised in the thorough documentation and the provision of faithful and timely disaster mitigation advice (Young et al., 1998).ConclusionTo conclude, the nature of a volcanic hazard, the social status of the population exposed to the hazard, geographic setting and the renewal policy set up by authorities vary between time and place (Gaillard, 2007). In the cases discussed above, all the eruptions produced similar hazards (tephra, lahars, pyroclastic flows) and the nature of the community and the way the population responded made the impacts different. Post industrial revolution communities use technology to their advantage in aiding after the eruption but also before the eruption, in the prediction and preparation stages.From the case studies, it is evident that forecasting plays a fundamental role in volcanic hazard mitigation (Sparks, 2003). It is vital for predicting when/where eruptions will occur, the kinds of hazards associated with the eruption, how long the eruption is likel y to last and if populations in close proximity to the volcano are at risk. Plans can then be put in place to reduce the risks connect to an eruption on a community.ReferencesBarberi, F. and Zuccaro, G. (2006) Somma Vesuvio Mesimex the final technical implimentation reportBarnes, K. (2011). vulcanology Europes ticking time bomb. Nature, 473(7346), pp.140-141.Dugmore AJ, and Vsteinsson O (2012) Black sun, high flaming and flood volcanic hazards in Iceland. In Cooper J, Sheets P (eds) surviving Sudden Environmental Change Answers from Archaeology (University Press of Colorado Boulder) p 67 -90.Gaillard, J.-C. (2006), Traditional societies in the face of natural hazards the 1991 Mt Pinatubo eruption and the Aetas of the Philippines, International ledger of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, 24(1), pp. 5-43Gaillard, J. (2007). 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